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The Development and Psychology of
Paul D. Short
(for Hon 3391T, The Japanese Psyche, Dr. Fling, Southwest Texas State University)
November 6, 1995
(Revised and expanded December 12, 1995)
Introduction Misconceptions about the martial arts are overwhelming. Popular notions
of Bushido (The Way of the samurai) and Budo (Japanese martial
arts) are no exception. Although the samurai were not the only originators
of martial arts in Japan, they were the most significant. By tracing the
development of Bushido and Budo, a better understanding
of the Japanese people can be reached--the centuries of military rule
has had significant effects on the Japanese, especially with a warrior
class as large and influential as Japan's.(1
)
More important, by studying the development of Japanese martial
arts, a better insight on the nature of conflict can be gained.
The nature of Japanese martial arts has changed drastically, especially
during the Tokugawa, Meiji, and Modern (Post World War II) eras. Since
World War II, the Japanese martial arts have spread, further complicating
the perception of Bushido and Budo However, Westerners have
taken a great interest in the martial arts, and Budo can no longer
be considered confined to just the Japanese. The development of a particular
martial art, Aikido, is used here to show the development of Budo
and to demonstrate the psychology of a martial art. Aikido was
chosen because the author is familiar with this style, and also because
its founder is considered one of the last major disciples of the samurai
arts. This does not imply that Aikido is the only modern Budo,
nor does it imply that it is "better" than other styles. "Better"
is a relative term, just as Bushido and Budo are.
Contrary to popular belief in both Japan and the West, bushido--the
way of the samurai--was not a universal, stratified code passed
down as law, as Inazo Nitobe hints at in his influential work Bushido:
The Soul of Japan. According to Hurst, "in every way imaginable,
Nitobe was the least qualified Japanese of his age to be informing anyone
of Japan's history and culture." (1990, p. 511) Hurst points out
that Nitobe was a scholar of Western culture who lived in an isolated
Christian community in Hokkaido, far removed from the culture of Japan.
His writings have been criticized as misleading and full of historical
inaccuracies. When he wrote Bushido, he thought he had coined a
new word, and was surprised when a Japanese pointed out to him that the
word existed since Tokugawa times (p. 513).
Nevertheless, Bushido: The Soul of Japan reflects the views of
many Japanese during Nitobe's time. He wrote Bushido at the turn
of the century, during the whirlwind of the Meiji Period. The restoration
of the emperor Meiji, which marked the end of Japanese feudalism and the
beginning of a movement that would propel Japan into World War II, was
sparked in part by the intervention of the United States into Japanese
affairs. When Commodore Perry arrived in 1853 and forced the acceptance
of an unwanted--and unfair--"treaty," it broke 250 years of
stability in Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate collapsed under the political
dissension caused by the Perry incident and an Imperial government was
established. As Japan rapidly began its Westernization, the slogan "Restore
the Emperor and expel the Barbarians!" was coined.
Nitobe's Bushido caught on during the nationalistic movement
of Meiji Japan. It was the root of the propaganda that the Japanese carried
with them to World War II. Hurst sums up Nitobe's Bushido as "merely
an illusion created by projecting Puritanism, which he had learned from
the West, on Japan." (p. 513) The samurai ideals of the Meiji Period
are comparable to the Teutonic symbolism of Nazi Germany: propaganda drawn
from ancient warriors to fit the needs of a nationalistic movement. But
Nitobe was not the sole originator of Bushido propaganda; the accounts
presented in the Hagakure and the Budo Shoshinshu were late
sixteenth century portrayals of earlier [Heian] samurai (p. 514),
much in the same way that sixteenth and seventeenth century Europeans
painted romantic images of knights in shining armor that endure today.
Even much of the great medieval war chronicles found in the Hogen monogatari,
the Heiji monogatari, the Heike monogatari, and the Gikei
were 13th-15th century glorifications of the 11th century Heian
age (Friday, 1993, p. 1). The Japanese are not exempt from the human tendency
to exaggerate and glorify the past.
To avoid these same exaggerations, the term Bushido in this paper
refers to the loose collection of Pre-Meiji samurai ideals, not to be
confused with the Bushido in Nitobe's work, or Bushido used
in other contexts by other authors. Many authors have cited the Tokugawa
period as the birth of Bushido, but this can be misleading. Although
Bushido first appeared in print during the Tokugawa era (by Yamaga
Soko in 1685), during the strict Tokugawa regime, many laws and codes
were passed, including those covering the samurai class, such as the Buke-
Shohatto (Laws of the Military House, 1615). Although these laws were
influenced by the rich martial ethos of Japan's past, it was also influenced
by the political agenda of the Tokugawa shoguns. To say that Bushido,
or the "Way of the Warrior", is confined to a collection of
Tokugawan laws and military regulations is just as misleading as saying
Bushido is confined by the definitions in Nitobe's work. Both may
represent the martial ethos of their time, but they do not accurately
reflect the attitudes of the samurai before them. Although samurai ideals
and samurai "codes" varied according to time and geography,
approaching Bushido as a loose collection of warrior ideals and
codes of conduct that began with the rise of the samurai class
and ended with the Meiji Restoration (the official end of Japan's
feudal age and, therefore, the end of the historic samurai) serves as
a way to separate the martial ethos of the samurai from the political
ideology of the Meiji Period--and the misconceptions that persist in popular
culture today.
Budo(2) --Bu
meaning "martial" and do meaning "Way"--is
a more appropriate term for the Japanese martial arts than Bushido,
since Bushido can be translated as "The Way of the Samurai."
A practitioner of the Japanese martial arts can be considered a samurai
only in the figurative sense; the purpose of Budo is different from
Bushido (But the spirit of Bushido is certainly prevalent
in Budo) Generally speaking, Bushido was the combined whole
of the samurai lifestyle, a code of conduct geared toward developing military
administrators, professional armies, and elite soldiers. Budo, on
the other hand, is the application of samurai knowledge as a way
to improve one's life, and the life of others. If Bushido is the
"Way" of the samurai, then Budo is the "Way"
of the modern Japanese martial artist.
The relation of Bushido to Budo is analogous to the development
of acupuncture: during centuries of warfare, the Chinese collected massive
amounts of data on the effects of puncture wounds on various parts of
the body. Some of these turned out to beneficial. This information was
put to use alleviate pain and promote health and healing. The same knowledge,
however, can be used in lethal striking techniques. Similarly, Bushido,
and the military sciences developed by the samurai, can be used for propaganda
and violence, but it can also be put to positive use in Budo Benefits
of Budonot only include psychological well-being, physical health,
and self-improvement, but also the intellectual growth and spiritual enrichment
of the Budo practitioner. Exactly how, why and when Budo
was developed is a complicated issue which requires a historical examination
of conflict in Japan.
The Rise of Civilization and Conflict in Japan
Until the 2nd century BC, the Japanese were primarily hunter-gatherers
(Yamaguchi, 1987.) When the Japanese began cultivating rice, centralization
of labor became necessary. Since rice can be stored for long periods,
any surplus could be accumulated as wealth, so class distinctions
began to appear (p. S5). This pattern based on rice cultivation
has been repeated throughout Asia, where rice farming is labor
intensive and requires much organization. Consequently, Japanese
ideas of hierarchy and the importance of the group began to emerge.
According to Chinese chronicles from the Han Dynasty, primitive
Japan was divided into many states without a centralized power
until the Yamatai state began to control its neighbors. Although
historians do not know what became of the Yamatai after the death
of its ruler, they have verified legendary events recorded by
the Kojiki and Nihonshoki as early as the 6th century.
It was during this era when the much older Chinese culture began
filtering to Japan (through Korea in the 4th-5th centuries and
through direct contact with China in AD 607), bringing, besides
art, technology, architecture, and writing (AD 405), Buddhism
(AD 552), Taoism, and Confucianism. Confucian doctrine reduced
the importance of the clan matriarch and instituted a male-dominated
doctrine for political and social government. Confucianist filial
piety and loyalty were adapted so that society became a reflection
of the family (Pieter, 1993, p. 21), which formed the bond between
lord and retainer. The emperor Tenmu established a political system
known as ritsu-ryo, based on the Confucianist legal system
of the Tang Dynasty.
Early Samurai Age (Heian, 794-1185, and Rokuhara 1156-1185)
The emperor remained supreme until the end of the 10th century.
When rival princes began to eliminate each other to gain the throne,
the Fujiwara clan eventually came to power (866-1160) by
providing the emperor with a regular supply of wives, who in turn
influenced their royal sons (Yamaguchi, p. S6).(3
) This marked the beginning of the Heian Period (794-1156)
and a long series of skirmishes called "The Golden Age of the Samurai."
Members of the Fujiwaras began to push themselves into high military and
administrative positions, which caused political dissension. Taking advantage
of the political chaos, the warrior (Bushi) Minamoto clan took control
of the government, forming a network of generals who ruled separate provinces.
The emperor became a powerless figurehead.
Although the Heian Age is known as the Golden Age for the refinement
of court life and the arts, samurai of later periods also looked
back at the Heian Age as their Golden Age, an age where they advanced
to the top of the hierarchy. These highly skilled, professional
soldiers devoted their entire lives to the battlefield. Since
they fought mostly mounted during this period, the sword was an
auxiliary weapon, much like an officer's pistol today (Friday,
p. 4-5). The bow was the preferred weapon of the Heian samurai.
However, the sword was often used off the battlefield in duels
to defend one's honor, or "duty" to one's name.
The Heian military unit was analogous to a family, according to the Confucian
ethic embraced by the samurai and the Shinto traditions that bound groups
and families together. These small units were often conglomerated to form
armies and retained their autonomy when dismissed. Because the samurai
fought as relatively independent soldiers, staying only in small, close-knit
units, ideas of personal honor were strong. The central issue to a samurai's
personal honor was his martial abilities (Friday, p. 15). This idea of
honor was passed on to later medieval samurai.
Rise of the Buke (Gempei War, 1180-85, and Beginning of
Kamakura Period, 1185)
The Heian Period ended when the Minamotos were defeated by the Taira
clan (1156). In turn, the Tairas were defeated in 1185 by an alliance
of clans lead by a Minamoto clansman, Minamoto Yoritomo, who assumed the
title of Seii Tai Shogun, or "supreme general sent against
the barbarians." After his victory, he killed his generals to ensure
his position. He then set up a military government, the bakufu ("tent
government"), in Kamakura, far from the effete and powerless
court of the kuge (court nobles) in Kyoto. Although the shogun
was the commander of the Emperor's armies, "with Yoritomo's rule
the title came to denote the military dictator who ruled in the name of
the Emperor." (Saotome, 1993, p. 105.) The Buke (samurai(4
)
class) became the de- facto ruling class. After Yoritomo's death
in 1205, succeeding shoguns came from his allies in the Hojo
Clan (1185-1336), then by force from the Ashikaga clan (1336-1568),
and after a great civil war (Momoyama Period, 1568-1600),
the Tokugawa clan (1600-1867).
From the fall of the Emperor in the 10th century until the beginning
of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1600, the samurai regularly fought in skirmishes
and intermittent wars and dominated both politics and warfare. During
the Tokugawa shogunate, which was to be the last shogunate, war was almost
non- existent and the samurai acted primarily as a privileged class of
administrators and policemen. The samurai of the Heian, Rokuhara,
Kamakura, Ashikaga, and Momoyama periods differed from the
samurai of the Tokugawa period both in purpose and thought. These differences
reflect an evolution of the warrior ethic which would eventually manifest
itself as Budo
Middle Ages (Kamakura, 1185-1336; Ashikaga, 1336-1568; and
Momoyama, 1568-1600)
In contrast to the early samurai, the Medieval samurai fought
in larger armies regulated by the daimyo.(5)
Instead of the bow and arrow, medieval samurai preferred the sword
and spear (Friday, p.15). The Japanese changed their armor so
that they could fight on the ground. As fighting grew more technical
and more strategic, the samurai had to learn several weapon systems,
including unarmed combat. Since punching and striking armor did
not make much sense(6), methods
of grappling, locking, and throwing armored opponents evolved.(7)
So many weapons and techniques were developed from centuries of
fighting that the samurai had to be familiar with all of them.
Although firearms were introduced to Japan in 1543, most samurai
felt the weapon was too impersonal, and "left it to the lower
ranks of the farmers and ji-samurai (low ranking foot soldiers,
not members of the samurai class) and, with their elegance and
pride still intact, charged into battle wearing their two swords."
(Saotome, p. 124.)
As military science advanced, so did the thinking of the samurai. Although
the term Bushido did not come into print until later during the
Tokugawa period (and then only in a much narrower context than today),
much of it was formulated during the middle ages in a loose set of laws,
social norms, and military regulations. One of bushido's strongest
roots, however, was Zen.
In 1191, Rinzai Zen came from China, and Soto Zen followed in 1227 (Pieter,
1993, p. 16). Rinzai Zen, with its emphasis on satori (sudden insight)
became the favorite religion of the samurai and soon became the de-facto
state religion. Samurai often turned to Zen priests for advice and counseling,
and sometimes even retired as Zen monks. Zen Buddhism appealed to the
samurai because it emphasized intuition, something that they often had
to rely on in the fast-paced battlefield. Unlike the Confucianism of that
era, which took on an airy, aristocratic, intellectual taste, Zen was
pragmatic, stressed self-discipline, and appealed to the military mind.
It dealt with death, something Shinto and Confucianism did not adequately
provide. Zen also acknowledged the interrelatedness of all things, including
the mind and body. Mind and body unification was essential for survival
on the battlefield, where a moment of distraction meant the difference
between life and death. This kind of discipline went beyond technical
ability; an intuitive awareness that Westerners often refer to as the
"sixth sense" was essential.(8
) Zen further refined the Eastern concept of Ki, which,
as will be discussed later, forms the crux of Eastern thought. Zen began
to fuse into the military sciences and all quarters of Japanese life.
When the Tokugawa shogunate gained power in 1600, it marked the beginning
of 250 years of isolation and relative peace. Military sciences evolved
into systems of martial arts sometimes known as classical Budo,
bujutsu, or kobudo (old or pre-Meiji Budo). Laws
passed down by the Tokugawa shogunate, along with local military practices
and social norms expected of the samurai, formed a doctrine which
is collectively known as Bushido According to Hurst, the famous
quote, "The sword is the soul of the samurai" appeared for the
first time in the Tokugawa Naraiki hyakka-jo, a seventeenth century
legal code. Although this transformation of the martial arts and the formulation
of Bushido ideals are regarded as creative adaptations since Meiji
times, Tokugawa contemporaries perceived this as a decline in martial
skills. (Hurst, 1993, p.44) Few could attain the experience of a battlefield
tested warrior such as Miyamoto Musashi, Japan's most famous samurai.(9
) Hurst says that "Musashi himself was already critical
of those whom he saw as "selling" their skills, talking of having
one or more dojo and teaching heiho [military training] to students."
(p. 44) Tomo Tokihide of Shibuka-ryu jujitsu even goes as far as
to say that students of legendary samurai such as Miyamoto Musashi and Yagyu
Jubei only learned to imitate their masters, rather than fully understanding
them, which consequently lead to later generations of students who only
learned forms(10), reducing
the martial arts "to the level of watching puppets play." (Tokihide
as quoted and translated by Hurst, 1993, p. 44.)
In order to maintain control over Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate
instated Neo-Confucianism as the state religion. Neo-Confucianism,
simply put, was Chu Hsi's (Shu Ku in Japanese, 1130-1200) interpretation
of Confucianism which "stressed the unquestioning and loyal
attitude of inferior toward superiors" (Adele and Westbrook,
1973, p. 73). Since Chu Hsi's interpretation of Confucianism was
"the theoretical foundation for feudal society" (Goedertier,
as cited by Adele and Westbrook, p. 74), this philosophy became
the Tokugawan shogunate's justification for its strict laws. Besides
using Neo-Confucianism as a philosophical device for maintaining
power, the Tokugawans also developed an intricate network of secret
police and a system for indoctrination. Espionage became so predominant
that its influence can be seen later in the Meiji Restoration
and the network of informants in Asia before World War II. The
Tokugawans indoctrinated their top samurai by educating them in
Neo- Confucian daigaku (universities). With so much emphasis
on culture, literature and art, and with so many rigid customs,
codes of conduct, and various duties to fulfill at the shogun's
court, the Tokugawa shogunate kept its samurai too occupied to
prepare for rebellions or wars. (Saotome, p.115) Although the
government ruled with a firm grip, it also kept the peace and
cultivated the arts.
In Tokugawa Japan, Neo-Confucianism began to influence Bushidomore
so than religious Zen. Although Zen was already embedded in culture of
Japan, "few warriors were firm believers or advocates of Zen Buddhism."
(Hurst, p. 46.) The decline of Zen in the Tokugawa era was in part caused
by the revival of Chinese studies, originally sparked by the Neo-Confucian
movement. Since most samurai acted as administrators and government officials,
they were educated in Neo-Confucianist daigaku, with Zen priests
as teachers of composition. Samurai authors often imitated the ambiguous
style of Zen writing, thus creating the illusion that Neo-Confucianist
Tokugawa samurai were Zen followers. The influence of Zen on the
samurai should not be underestimated, but Neo-Confucianism played at least
an equally important role. Hurst points out that several authors have
overemphasized the influence of Zen in the martial arts, interpreting
things from an exclusively Zen point of view. He even goes as far as to
say the works of Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki, especially his chapters on Zen
and the art of swordsmanship, wrongly suggests that the Zen priest
Takuan heavily influenced the writings of Yagyu Muneyoshi, and that Muneyoshi
himself received sharp criticisms from his contemporaries for overemphasizing
the importance of Zen.
The Meiji Period and the Development of a
Modern Budo: Aikido
The Tokugawa era represents just one step toward today's popular image
of the samurai and Bushido . Bushido, as it was defined
by Nitobe's "Bushido: The Soul of Japan", can be considered
a Meiji interpretation of Tokugawan Bushido In turn, Tokugawan
Bushido can also be considered a Neo-Confucian interpretation of
Medieval and Heian samurai ethics. Indeed, the warriors of Japan--whether
they be samurai of the Heian, Medieval, or Tokugawa period, or even Meiji
reformers and World War II Kamikaze pilots--all drew upon samurai
ideals, each interpreting them according to their environment and the
needs of their superiors. The Japanese businessman, whose Western contemporaries
see as engaged in modern economic warfare, carries with him the Bushido
as interpreted by Medieval samurai, the Tokugawa shogunate, and even the
Meiji reformers.
According to Drager (as cited by Maliszewski, 1992), the overthrow of
the Tokugawa shogunate marks the beginning of modern Budo The Meiji
government redirected classical (Tokugawa) Budo to develop a "new
sense of personal pride and national spirit." (p. 23) However, Budo
became used for other purposes besides personal cultivation and patriotism.
Although the Meiji Restoration reinstated the Emperor as the ruler of
Japan, as Japan grew more ambitious and began to exercise its growing
military power, the Emperor was slowly but deliberately transformed once
again into a figurehead.
As Japan grew in military strength, it began to use Budo as a
tool for training its future soldiers. In 1872, early in the Meiji Period,
Western-style sports and physical education, not the martial arts, were
part of the school curriculum. As Japan expanded its military powers,
military drills and gymnastics were added in 1885, and in 1913, elementary
schools began to adopt martial arts training. Shortly after, secondary
schools added judo, kendo, and sumo. In 1941, Japan's war time National
School Reform act replaced physical education teachers with military instructors
and made intense training in judo and kendo mandatory, as well as "squad
drills, military maneuvers, and the use of hand grenades." (Neide,
1995, p. 37.) According to Neide, martial arts "provided the training
for a psychologically efficient soldier" (p. 37) and was a way for
future soldiers to learn "strategy, self-control, and above all,
allegiance to authority." (p. 38.)
Although many Japanese saw this as an opening of Budo to the
masses and a transformation of the Budo instructor into a spiritual leader
and public educator, many masters resented the government's nationalistic
movement to centralize, define, and reorganize Budo for war. According
to Dundas, an Imperial edict prohibited the practice of old style martial
arts, including classic jujitsu(11
) Many
masters went underground or left the country.(12)
Aikido's founder, Master Morihei Ueshiba, is fondly remembered
as "O Sensei," or "The
Great Teacher," by his students. Ueshiba interpreted the meaning
of Budodifferently than some of his Meiji contemporaries, and avoided
the nationalistic conglomeration of the martial arts by other Budo
proponents during World War II(13
). Nevertheless, Aikido is a product of the Meiji Period.
As a young man, he was motivated by the Meiji Bushido doctrine of
his time and enlisted in the army during the Russo-Japanese War, advancing
to the rank of sergeant. Although he was a patriotic man who supported his
country publicly, he personally did not agree with Japan's involvement in
World War II (Stevens, 1987.). His affiliation with one of Japan's "new"
religions, the Omoto-kyo, as well as the effects of the war, greatly
influenced his interpretation of Budo, making Aikido the unique
art that it is today.(14)
The Omoto-kyo was an esoteric blend of Asiatic shamanism, Shinto,
Buddhism, and Christianity based on the idea that all religious teachings
evolved from a single origin. The cult's leader, Reverend Onisaburo Deguchi,
encouraged Morihei Ueshiba to transform deadly samurai Daito-ryu Aiki-jujitsu
techniques into a nonviolent and spiritual Budo
When Ueshiba was ordered to join the Dai Nippon Butokukai (Greater
Japan Martial Virtue Association) as part of the war effort, he registered
Aikido as an independent Budo with the ministry of education in 1942,
and isolated himself to the mountains of Iwama during the war.(15
) He also resented the government's severe persecution of his
comrades in the Omoto-kyo: members became political prisoners, their homes
and shrines were dynamited, and the entire movement was suppressed. Ueshiba's
personal influence within the Meiji government and the royal family, as
well as his public support for his country, may have saved him. He revealed
his personal resentment only to his family and disciples, saying how much
he detested having to teach at the royal military academies. He complained
to his son: "The military is dominated by reckless fools ignorant of
statesmanship and religious ideals who slaughter innocent citizens indiscriminately
and destroy everything in their path. They act in total contradiction to
God's will, and they will surely come to an end. True Budois to nourish
life and foster peace, love, and respect, not to blast the world to pieces
with weapons." (Stevens, 1987.)
Aikido is, according to Kisshomaru Ueshiba, the current Doshu
(grandmaster) over the Hombu dojo (original school) and son of
Morihei Ueshiba,
World War II and the allied occupation of Japan were critical
to the development of Aikido. According to Kisshomaru Ueshiba
had his father not retreated to the mountains of Iwama, Aikido
may have been assimilated by the merger of Japanese martial arts
during the war, and "both the names of Master Ueshiba and
Aikido . . . might have been regulated to history books and with
time become only obscure legends in the annals of the martial
arts." (1987, p. 104) During his stay at Iwama he began to
integrate more of his personal and spiritual beliefs into his
art, thus transforming the nature of its techniques. According
to Stevens (1987, p. 47), Ueshiba was compelled to go to Iwama
because he perceived that a "black rain" prophesied
by the Omoto-kyo would soon fall on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A
"divine command" directed him to go to Iwama and prepare
himself to be a guiding light for Japan. Mitsugi Saotome, one
of Ueshiba's top disciples, gives another, less esoteric reason.
According to him, Ueshiba said,
When Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945, Master Ueshiba told
his students not to worry. "Hereafter," he said, "the
true Aikido will emerge." (Stevens, 1987, p. 47.)
A closer examination of Master Ueshiba's enlightenment in the spring
of 1925 may clarify things. Morihei Ueshiba was well-known in Japan as
a master of several prestigious samurai arts. A naval officer, who also
happened to be a well-known kendo master, sought Ueshiba out and
challenged him to a duel. Unarmed, Master Ueshiba defeated the swordsman
without harming him, letting him attack until the officer became too exhausted
to continue. Unscathed, Master Ueshiba walked to his garden and rested
under a persimmon tree. According to his own account (K. Ueshiba, 1985,
p. 155), the ground quaked and he felt a golden spirit engulf his body,
changing it into a golden one. He suddenly became enlightened, freeing
himself from the illusion of personal desire, including ambition and the
desire to be strong. As tears streamed down his eyes, he came to realize
the true meaning of Budo: the source of Budo is God's love,
the spirit of loving protection of all things (ai love or the maternal
amae love); Budo is not about defeating opponents with force,
nor is it a means to lead the world to destruction; true Budo is
to accept the power of the universe, maintain peace, and to protect and
cultivate all life; and training in Budo is to take God's love,
assimilate it, and use it in the mind and body. (Stevens, 1987 and K.
Ueshiba, 1985)
Master Ueshiba's idea of Budois different from Western portrayals
of the macho, aggressive martial artist or the deadly, sword wielding
samurai. Indeed, he goes as far to say that "the true meaning of
the term samurai is one who serves and adheres to the power of
love" (M. Ueshiba, 1992, p. 45). Yet he is also known for sayings
such as "One should be prepared to receive ninety-nine percent of
an enemy's attack and stare death right in the face in order to illuminate
the Path" (p. 92) and "Left and right, avoid all cuts and parries.
Seize your opponents' minds and scatter them all!" (p. 102) Aikido
is typical of Meiji Budo in that it emphasizes practice for personal cultivation,
but it is unique in that it carries Ueshiba's interpretation of the samurai
ethic, an interpretation that appears to match the findings of writers
and historical researchers today.
What research says about today's martial artists
Empirical research on the psychological effects of martial arts
is weak, in part from the simplistic view of the martial arts
by researchers and a general lack of knowledge in this area. (Fuller,
p. 326). Another weakness may be a lack of cross-cultural comparisons
in studies conducted on the martial arts. However, a few studies
have reinforced some traditional views of the martial arts and
cleared up some stereotypes.
According to a 1985 CPI scale study conducted by Knoblaunch (as
cited in Fuller) of 103 male and females with less than one year's
experience in an internal (hard) or external (soft) martial art,
novice external martial artists appeared more dominate and competitive
than novices in internal arts, but did not appear more aggressive.
The novice internal stylists cited personal, self-improvement
reasons for choosing their styles. There were no significant gender
differences in the motivation for choosing a style, nor were there
any gender differences in dominance, aggression, or competitiveness.
A 1981 study conducted by Nosanchuch on 42 traditional karate
students (as cited by Fuller) found an inverse relationship between skill
level and aggressiveness, which supports the traditional view that training
in the martial arts reduces aggressiveness, contrary to what some social
psychologists have theorized. Fuller supports the view that tactile communication
between partners in the soft arts, especially Aikido, is important
in reducing aggressiveness. This may because that in soft arts such as
judo, jujitsu, and Aikido, partners learn how to manage
and "feel" each other's balance, energy, momentum, and intent,
while in external arts such as karate and tae kwon do(16
), the emphasis is more on projection of strikes and
less on a working partnership. This attitude can be explained with the
concept of Ki (energy): soft style arts emphasize harmonizing Ki,
while hard style arts emphasize projection ofki.
Perhaps the most difficult topic to talk about in the martial arts is
Ki (Chi or qi in Chinese). Kinot only forms
the basis of Aikido and Chinese Tai Chi, but more importantly,
"forms the crux of East Asian philosophies and religions." (K.
Ueshiba, 1987, p. 25.) Ki is as fundamental to Eastern thought
as the idea of Good and Evil is in the West. Ideas of Ki, as a
refined metaphysical principle, came to Japan in the 7th Century (Locke,
Olson, Seitz, and Quam, 1990) infused with Taoist and Buddhist philosophy.
The idea of Ki fit in with Shinto views of nature, which implied
the existence of a "life-force" permeating all substance and
events.
Most martial art instructors purposely avoid too much discussion on
the subject--the interpretation of Ki is usually left up to the
student. Ki should not be mistaken for magic (Locke, Olson, Seiz and Quam,
1990, and McCann in Short, 1995)--it is a natural, simple concept which
can be interpreted many different ways. Only a few interpretations of
Ki will be introduced here, but this does not mean that these are
the only interpretations.
A traditional Taoist-educated Chinese physician would probably say that
chi (Ki) is a microbiomaterial which circulates through
the body, maintaining life itself (Ho, 1995.). An Eastern philosopher
might say that Ki is the matter-energy of which the Universe itself
is made. In keeping with this line of thought, a physicist might describe
Ki with the Big Bang Theory. According to Cosmologist Carl Sagan
(as cited in K. Ueshiba, 1987, p. 28.), "Our bodies are made up of
the dust from the stars. The same atoms that constitute the stars make
up our bodies. . . . Indeed, we are the children of the stars." One
can consider the dynamic energy generated during the Big-Bang as Ki
or life itself. Ki can be conceptualized as both energy and matter,
similar to the relationships expressed by Einstein's famous "E=MC2"
and quantum theories.
At a recent Aikido seminar (Kokikai Fall Camp, 1995, Arizona State University),
Kokikai Aikido founder Sensei Shuji Maruyama continually stressed that
Ki should be approached as simply "a feeling." In Aikido,
a feeling of correctness, good posture--a natural, relaxed yet active
state(17
)-- not a mysterious magical element. He demonstrated the absurdity
of "magical Ki" in several ways: once by pretending to
exert an invisible force through his hand to stop an attacker, and another
by mimicking a person desperately worrying about an Aikido test, hoping
for divine intervention through Ki power.
Unity of Ki, mind, and body is the ultimate goal of Aikido
(K. Ueshiba, p. 26). Sensei Shuji Maruyama uses a physiological example
of Ki-mind-body unification: the adrenaline rush that a mother
uses to lift the end of a car off her fallen child. Another example can
be found with yoga, where one learns how to control heartbeat and
blood pressure with, according to Skidmore, much better results than conventional
bio-feedback therapy (p. 142).
Some may dismiss Ki as merely a placebo effect. However, unlike any
other placebo effect, which the subject generally believes to be directed
from the outside, with Ki, the subject believes it to be directed
from within (p. 146). Whether Ki exists as an entity or not is
left up to the individual; many martial artists are content to simply
view Ki as an overall "blanket concept," or a tool for
conceptualization. A personal definition of Ki can only be established
with experience.
Most contemporary cognitive-behavioral therapy in the area of stress
management employs techniques ranging from bio-feedback and self monitoring
to Socratic discourse and social skills training (Fuller, 1988, p. 325)--highly
verbal and cognitive approaches to dealing with stress. In internal martial
arts such as Aikido, stress management is dealt with in a nonverbal
manner, using the body itself as a tool for learning. This has the twofold
effect of relieving stress both physically and mentally.
Thomas Crum, author of The Magic of Conflict, applies his practice
of Aikido in his Aiki Approach To Living seminars. Along with
cofounder John Denver(18),
Crum heads Aiki Works, Inc., an educational organization dedicated
to teaching conflict management. Crum views conflict as neither
negative nor positive. "Conflict just is." (Crum, 1987.)
Crum explains that conflict is necessary for change, and teaches
students to go with the flow of things, much like the samurai
view of conflict, echoing the words of Morihei Ueshiba: "I
have no attachment to life or death. I leave everything as it
is to God.(19 ) Be apart
from attachment to life and death and have a mind which leaves
everything to him, not only when you are being attacked, but also
in daily life." (M. Ueshiba, 1992.)
Crum uses the principles of Aikido to actively resolve conflict. One
principle in Aikido is to never meet force directly on with force; instead,
one takes the force given and controls it by acting perpendicular to the
energy--this analogy is similar to a principle in physics that essentially
states zero work is required when one force meets another a right angle,
or the way a bent pipe can channel a stream of water without doing any
work. (Personal communication with former physicist Sensei Bob McCann.)
Another useful analogy that demonstrates avoidance of direct force is
the conversion of linear energy to circular energy in a watermill: by
turning against the force of a waterfall when its pedals are struck, the
mill rotates and generates circular force as its center (axis) is stable.
In Aikido techniques that involve the use of tenkan (turning, pivoting),
the Aikidoka avoids the linear force of an attacker (punch, strike, kick)
and it to circular energy by turning and maintaining a stable axis, an
axis that can guide and control the greater force of the attacker, as
long as it avoids clashing against it. Crum shows how Aiki (harmony
with Ki) principles work in such a manner in daily life, especially
in conversations, arguments, and anywhere stress or conflict may arise.
Crum views depression as a spiraling reaction to conflict. According
to him, one of the culprits is a natural tendency for people to label
difficulties as bad. These feelings accumulate and the person "spirals
down" into depression. Using a relabeling technique he calls "the
expansion spiral," Crum uses the wisdom expressed by Master Ueshiba:
"Be grateful even for hardship, setbacks, and bad people. . . . do
not feel animosity toward others when they treat you unkindly. Instead,
feel gratitude toward them for giving you the opportunity to train yourself
to handle adversity." (M. Ueshiba, 1992.) Instead of viewing a problem
negatively, Crum suggests using the situation as a learning experience.
Centering, or Keeping One-Point
Resolving conflict in the martial arts also means resolving conflict
within the self. Koichi Tohei, founder of Shinshin Toitsu Aikido (or
Ki Society Aikido) once helped a doctor with insomnia by suggesting
that he use Aikido centering techniques instead of sleeping pills.
He pointed out to the doctor that insomniacs sometime suffer from a condition
where too much blood rushes to the head, accumulating too much heat and
hindering sleep. Tohei showed the doctor how to "sink your mind into
the one point in the lower abdomen and think with all your heart that
your blood is flowing from that point to the very toenails of the feet."
(Tohei, 1994, p. 82.) The technique worked, and the doctor became an enthusiastic
Ki Society follower ever since.
Keeping One-Point (Centrum, Tanden or the physical point two
inches below the navel) is vital in the practice of Aikido--an
Aikidoka maintains One-Point while controlling an attacker's One-Point,
or balance. This also applies psychologically--the losing one's center
mentally also means losing of one's physical center, as demonstrated by
a deafening Kiai intended to distract an opponent--and ethically:
the very intent of aggression means that the attacker has morally lost
One-Point, which also means that the person has lost One-Point psychologically
and physically.
The focus of this paper has been to clarify misconceptions about Budo
and Bushido, and to demonstrate the constantly changing martial
ethic. The author has purposely avoided the typical approach to Bushido,
such as detailed examination of seppuku (hara kiri, or ritual
suicide), accounts of samurai legends, and so on. The point that
the samurai lived a Spartan life of self-sacrifice, which ultimately included
the taking of his own life, has been thoroughly covered by other writers.
Also, a rather narrow, simplistic view of samurai development was
taken in order to generalize on the psychological factors of bushido--this
is due to the limited scope and space constraints of this paper. There
are probably exceptions to almost everything mentioned.
The section Benefits of Budo is a very brief introduction to
the mentality of a martial artist and the concept of Ki It does
not mention other important practices such as Ki breathing and
the importance of "cosmological" breath power; "sixth sense,"
or awareness training; misogi (spiritual cleansing) exercises,
including mantrayana and kotodama (chants, sentic state
expression, etc.); mediational exercises, and the like. The more esoteric
practices are often treated as supplementary or personal exercises by
many dojo. Another limitation is that this paper concentrates on Aikido
as model for both Budo and an internal, or "soft" martial
art--definitions of "hard" and "soft" are relative
to individual perception. Ki training is not limited to just Aikido--other
Budo, including "hard" styles such as karatedo,
have their own interpretations of Budo and Ki Self-improvement
and conflict management methods in other martial arts are just as valid.
A martial art can be a way to seek enlightenment, resolve conflict,
develop character, or improve the quality of life. It can also be used
to indoctrinate--in the case of the Meiji Restoration, it led Japan to
a war that would eventually end with the dropping of the atomic bomb,
but it also fired the Japanese industrial movement which continues to
this today. Although practice in Budo requires much patience, if
one perseveres long enough the wisdom of the samurai will be at
his or her disposal, just as it has been for Japan.
1. About 10%,
significantly larger than the knight class of Europe. The samurai
influenced the lifestyle of the common people in Japan (mostly
farmers and fishermen) much more so than the knights did in Europe.
2. Bujutsu ("martial art") is often
used synonymously with Budo in Japan. However, it is important to distinguish
between jutsu and do outside of Japan for the benefit of Westerners. Jutsu
implies emphasis on technique or the cultivation of martial skills as an
art form. Do implies a deeper synthesis of jutsu as a way of life or as
a way to improve one's life. Budo, however, was not commonly used to refer
to martial arts in Japan until the Meiji Period (Hurst, 1993, p. 42.). Martial
arts founded before the Meiji Restoration are now known as kobudo ("old
martial arts").
3. This corresponds
with Doi's work on amae (the passive, dependent love that an infant
instinctively harbors toward its mother and carries on into adult
behavior) and demonstrates the maternal influence on the Japanese
psyche.
4. Samurai
were commonly referred to in Japan as "retainers" (mononofu,
wasarau) or "men of war" (bushi). The world now refers
to them by the Chinese-derived name samurai, which means "to
serve" (Ratti and Westbrook, 1994, p. 83).
5. Barons in
the Japanese military feudal system.
6. One exception
is the system of striking and punching developed by Okinawans
known as karate. When the samurai invaded the Ryukyu islands,
they encountered fierce resistance by the Okinawan peasants. The
Okinawans integrated Shaolin kickboxing from China with a system
of fighting known as Te. Desperate peasants highly skilled in
karate could strike hard enough to shatter the same armor that
earned the respect of the Koreans in earlier campaigns (Adele
and Westbrook, 1973, p.37.) The samurai learned their lesson in
Okinawa and assimilated striking methods into their curriculum.
7. One samurai style of unarmed combat, Aiki-jujitsu
(according to tradition, founded somewhere between 900-1100 AD), was a predecessor
to Aikido. Aikido's founder, Morihei Ueshiba, was the last major disciple
of Daito-ryu Aiki-jujitsu Master Ueshiba was the one of the last students
of several other significant samurai arts as well. Had he never founded
Aikido, he still would have been known as virtually "the last of the
samurai."
8. Westerners
often refer to the five senses, while Easterners refer to the
six senses, with the mind being the sixth. Instead of treating
these senses separately, they are seen as integrated and forming
an sum greater than the whole. Intuition and mysticism does not
seem as far-fetched in Eastern thought.
9. Mushashi
was both feared and respected during his time. He was a ronin
(masterless samurai) who killed his first opponent at age 13.
After settling a vendetta against the Yoshika family at age 21,
he wandered across Japan, seeking enlightenment by "the Way
of the Sword." He was so skilled that he got into the habit
of killing other swordsmen in live duels, with himself armed only
with a wooden bokken (practice sword).
10. This is one reason why the founder of Aikido
stressed waza (practice) and randori (free style against multiple attackers)
instead of Kata (forms).
11. Jujitsu was exported to Britain by Jujitsu
masters fleeing Japan (Dundas).
12. The 33rd grandmaster of Togakure Ryu ninjutsu
even kept his art underground until well after World War II. Ninjutsu practitioners
wore judo gi (judo uniforms), so that passerbys would assume that they were
practicing some form of jujitsu (Hayes, 1984, p. 4.) This was not totally
far from the truth, since jujitsu influenced ninjutsu Taijutsu.
13. One major difference between Aikido and other
Budo is the denouncement of competition by mainstream Aikido. In many ways,
the founder of Aikido resisted the nationalistic modernization movement
of Meiji Japan and preserved many important samurai ideals in his art.
14. One can trace the development of Aikido by
examining the names of its prototypes. Master Ueshiba called his art Aiki-bujutsu
in 1920, although most people continued to refer to it as Ueshiba-Ryu Aiki-jujitsu
In 1936 he renamed his art Aiki-Budo, do meaning "The Way," as
opposed to Jutsu, meaning "art," "technique," or "method."
In 1940 his art became known as an official organization under the name
Kobukai Aiki-Budo . In 1942 Master Ueshiba finally called his art Aikido,
meaning, among many things, "The Way of Harmony," or "The
Way of Love and Harmony with the power of the Universe."
15. During
the American Occupation, General McArthur outlawed the Dai Nippon
Butokukai, which had first been established in 1895, in order
to "eliminate any organization with residual military emphasis."
(Neide, 1995, p. 40)
16. A Korean
style similar to karate.
17. According
to Sensei Maruyama, "Your strongest state is a relaxed state."
His four basic principles of Kokikai Aikido can be summarized
as: "Keep one-point (hara), Maintain positive mind, Develop
positive mind, and relax progressively." (Bob McCann in Short,
1995.)
18. The singer.
19. Morihei
Ueshiba had a very broad interpretation of God. According to him,
God was the deities of all religions, including Shinto and Christianity.
He also viewed God as the Universe itself.
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Notes Author's Note: The Aikido-L mailing list on the Internet was a major
source of information on Aikido and Budo, and was instrumental in verifying
the sources used in this paper, including sources not cited as a reference
that were vital to this paper's formulation.
Reference syntax: A menu path has been given for documents
available on-line from the World Wide Web, since the information
contained in the 1994 4th edition of the APA style manual does
not yet cover information found in HTML format. However, the HTML
annotations here follow the suggested FTP format, with several
modifications: (a) Headers within a page are separated by a colon
[:], (b) Links to other menus or URLs are indicated by pointer
notation used by programmers, i.e., a dash and a "greater
than" symbol or right angle bracket [->], (c) The actual
document title is underlined as it actually appears in the menu,
indicating a link. |
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